Ethics and Philosophy of Social Research Essay Example for Free

Ethics and Philosophy of Social Research Essay The social research shares with all scientific endeavours the necessity to balance scientific zeal with other ethical values that derive from the social context in which all social research takes place. To some degree, the research ideal of objectivity unavoidably conflicts with humanistic values. Therefore, all researchers must at some time come to grips with this conflict. The issue, however, is especially crucial for social researchers because the focus of their research is the behaviour of other people. Thus, not only the goals of the social research but the very process of data collection is subject to ethical conflicts. The paper contains analysis—the synthesis of research results across a large number of studies—and on the social responsibility and ethical requirements of the social research. The ethical issues which researchers face in their day-to-day study are comparatively consistent across methods. The ethical principles adopted by researchers should govern their actions, whether they take place in field or laboratory environment. To make this point most strongly, this paper contains a separate section, which should serve as a strong point of reference for the social researcher, rather than providing a series of ethical requirements that are spread thinly throughout the various sections of this paper. These issues include the social and ethical responsibilities and constraints connected with the conduct of social research and advancing the cumulative progress of behavioral and social science through integrating and synthesizing findings from different current investigations. The paper hopes to make clear that social research is a collective enterprise undertaken in the context of ethical values. Main body Ethics in Social Research Ethics of Research Design and Methodology Because the subject matter of the social researcher is human behaviour and the processes that are associated with behaviour, it is unavoidable that researcher interests will conflict sometimes with ethical values placed on the rights of people to privacy and self-determination. The guidelines for social research ethics set by the Social Research Association (SRA) (2003) stress the idea of recruiting participants for research on the basis of informed consent —this means that participation must be freewill and with the participants full knowledge of what research will include. However, it is declared that many subjects could not be researched at all if this ideal were entirely met, and that the rights of individuals must be weighed against the possible importance of the research problem. David De Vaus (1996), for example, demonstrated in a verbal conditioning experiment that a full explanation of methods and hypotheses destroyed the phenomenon they were attempting to examine. In cases where full explanation of subject cannot be presented, SRA recommends that â€Å"But there should, at least, be clarity about opt-in and opt-out arrangements, about the length and degree of commitment required of respondents, and about the precise goals of the research. Adequate subject de-briefing also seems essential to this last aim.† Thus, the ethical code does not present free from limitations standards that relieve the researcher of important value judgments. Rather, judgments as to the comparative significance of research programmes and researchers responsibility for the well-being of their participants are the primary bases of research ethics. Deception in the Laboratory The degree to which participation is entirely voluntary is in many cases disputable, depending on the social and institutional pressures to take part in research that are at times involved. But usually, participants in laboratory experiments at least know that they participate in a research study. Notwithstanding, however, the information provided to participants in laboratory investigations is usually smallest, at best, and often purposely deceptive as to the goals of the research study. To what degree this deception is justified by serving scientific purposes and the potential benefit to human welfare is a matter of considerable debate. Some critics claim that no deception is ever reasonable and that it should not be permitted in the interests of social research (Ortmann Hertwig 746-747). Most social researchers, however, take a more temperate view, considering that there is an unavoidable compromise between values of entire honesty and informed consent and the possible value of what can be learned from the research itself. Just as the unimportant lie uttered in the interests of tact or politeness is regarded as acceptable when used in the service of good manners, so a little amount of deception may be acceptable in the service of obtaining reliable research data. However, there is also some controversy over whether social researchers have exceeded this adequate minimum in their research (Barnes 320). For some years the practice of deception in laboratory experiments was considered acceptable by most experimenters. However, an article by Herbert Kelman (1967) reflected a growing concern with accepted among many people, and evidently undisputed, use of deception in social research. Kelmans article argued this practice on both ethical and practical grounds. Ethically, he claimed, any deception disregarded essential norms of respect in the interpersonal relationship that forms between researcher and research participant. Besides, the practice might have extreme methodological implications as participants become less naive and extreme suspiciousness begins to have an effect upon the outcomes of all research. To avoid these problems, Kelman advised that social researchers (a) reduce the unnecessary use of deception, (b) explore ways of counteracting or minimizing its negative consequences when deemed necessary, and (c) develop new methods, such as role playing or simulation techniques, which substitute active participation for deception (Kelman 10-11). Practices of experimenting with these alternative methodologies have been tried, but the results are consisting of conflicting thoughts, at best (Crespi 23). Thus, the general agreement in the social research is that some level of deception is often necessary to produce realistic conditions for testing research hypotheses. However, such deception needs to be justified by the nature and significance of the research question being studied. As James D. Faubion (2005) put it, â€Å"The social researcher whose study may have a good chance of reducing violence or racism or sexism, but who declines to do the study simply because it requires deception, has not solved an ethical problem but only traded one for another† (860). Ethical Issues in Field Research Although much of the discussion about the ethical implications of deception concentrates on laboratory experimentation, study conducted outside the laboratory often considers a number of other ethical issues and concerns. Besides issues associated with consent to participate, researchers also must think over issues of privacy and confidentiality when research data are collected in field surroundings (Boruch 102). Because a main benefit of field research, from a scientific point of view, is the chance of obtaining samples of behaviour under naturally occurring circumstances, it often is beneficial to conduct such research under conditions in which the nature of the research is concealed. Therefore, the participants may not only be mislead regarding the goals of the research, but may even be uninformed that they are the subject of research in the first place. The use of â€Å"frugal† measures highlights this strategy (Ortlieb 2002), but even more traditional methods of data collection, such as the interview or questionnaire, are often conducted in such a manner as to conceal their true goal. Some researchers consider the practice of concealed observation or response elicitation as passable as long as it is limited to in fundamental way â€Å"public† behaviors or settings usually open to public examination. Adam Ashforth (1996), for example, presented a review of settings and behaviours for which concealed research methods have been used. However, there is the question of subjective definitions of what form â€Å"public† behaviours, specifically in urban settings where social norms lead to the probability of anonymity in public surroundings. Because by definition field research includes some act of intervening on the part of the researcher in the stimulus conditions to which the uninformed participants are exposed, ethical question about hidden observation is further difficult to understand because of concern over the nature of such manipulations. Instances of practice of experimenting in field settings comprise systematic variation of the content of applicant briefs sent to potential employers (Ashforth 1996), differential behaviour on the part of salesmen regarding customers (Fairclough 2003) or customers toward salesmen (Fairclough 2003). To some degree these all fall within a â€Å"normal range† of human behaviour in public surroundings, the only difference being their methodical manipulation by the researcher. Yet, collecting data about individual behaviour in these cases evidently violates the spirit of â€Å"informed consent, † in particular when researchers conclude it is best not to inform individuals which have been observed even after the fact (Seiber 268). The Regulatory Context of Research Involving Human Participants The preceding discussion of ethical dilemmas is contemplated to present the idea that there are no easy, certain rules for deciding whether a specific research strategy or method is ethical or not. Rather, difficult enough to construct opinion is involved in weighing the possible value of the research against potential stress or other costs to research participants. Ethical decision making includes a cost—benefit analysis rather than the consideration of certain strictures and rules (Alvaro Crano 13). Much of the responsibility for decision making falls on the individual researcher, but one person alone is not always the best judge of what is of considerable importance and necessary research and what is possibly harmful to participants. Actually, there is good evidence that biases enter into scientists evaluations of the quality of their own research (Kimmel 1991). Therefore, the conduct of social research that meets reasonable ethical standards and methods is not just a matter of persons judgment, it is the law. Almost all social research that is supported by funds or conducted in educational or research institutions that receive funding (of any kind) is subject to regulations concerning the conduct of social research. The primary agency is The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) which is the UKs leading research funding and training agency addressing economic and social concerns. ESRC provides certain principles for protecting the welfare and dignity of human participants in research and provides policies and procedures that are required of institutions in which such research is conducted. The ESRC expects that the research it supports will be conducted according to a high ethical standard. This Research Ethics Framework (REF) sets out good ethical practice in UK social research.Although REF is a mandatory aspect of social research which involves human participants, it does not absolve the researcher from any further responsibility for the ethical conduct of his or her research.

Losing Faith Young Goodman Brown Essays -- essays papers

Losing Faith Young Goodman Brown Throughout the short story "Young Goodman Brown," written by Nathaniel Hawthorne the main character is searching for Faith in what appears to be an increasingly corrupt world. Faith takes on a double meaning in this story, for Faith is used both as the name of Young Goodman Brown's pretty young wife and the spiritual devotion of Young Goodman Brown to the Puritan Faith. The dual usage of Faith in this short story, along with its theme of devil worship amongst Puritan society draws the reader in, and leaves the story imprinted on his brain for a long time to come. As the story opens, Young Goodman Brown is about to enter the forest to partake upon an "evil purpose." He leaves behind his sweet, pretty, young wife of three months, who wears pretty pink ribbons in her hair, urging her to "Say thy prayers, dear Faith, and go to bed at dusk, and no harm will come to thee" (p. 102). Young Goodman Brown is hesitant about leaving his Faith behind to go on such an errand, to venture into the forest where "the devil himself could be at my very elbow!" (p. 103). Once in the forest, Young Goodman Brown is met with "the figure of a man, in grave and decent attire, seated at the foot of an old tree" (p. 103). When questioned as to why he has dallied in meeting this figure, Young Goodman Brown replies "Faith kept me back awhile" (p. 103). In the literal sense, Young Goodman Brown's pretty young wife delayed him from his meeting with the dark figure by begging him to "put off his journey until sunrise and sleep in his own bed to-night" (p. 103). In a symbolic sense, Young Goodman Brown's devotion to all that is just in the world has made him hesitant to enter the corrupt reality of the forest. ... ...ditate his sermon, and Goody Cloyse catechizing a little girl. He spies the head of Faith, with the pink ribbons, gazing anxiously forth, and bursting into such joy at the sight of him that she skipped along the street and almost kissed her husband before the whole village" (p. 111). Young Goodman Brown looks sternly and sadly into her face, and passes on without a greeting. "Had Young Goodman Brown fallen asleep in the forest and only dreamed a wild dream of a witch-meeting?" (p. 112). It does not matter, for Young Goodman Brown becomes "a stern, a sad, a darkly meditative, a distrustful, if not a desperate man" (p. 111). He shrinks from the bosom of Faith, and he dies a "hoary corpse" (p. 111). It does not matter that Young Goodman Brown rejected the Devil at his fiery altar that night in the forest. The Devil has claimed his Faith in humanity in another way. Losing Faith Young Goodman Brown Essays -- essays papers Losing Faith Young Goodman Brown Throughout the short story "Young Goodman Brown," written by Nathaniel Hawthorne the main character is searching for Faith in what appears to be an increasingly corrupt world. Faith takes on a double meaning in this story, for Faith is used both as the name of Young Goodman Brown's pretty young wife and the spiritual devotion of Young Goodman Brown to the Puritan Faith. The dual usage of Faith in this short story, along with its theme of devil worship amongst Puritan society draws the reader in, and leaves the story imprinted on his brain for a long time to come. As the story opens, Young Goodman Brown is about to enter the forest to partake upon an "evil purpose." He leaves behind his sweet, pretty, young wife of three months, who wears pretty pink ribbons in her hair, urging her to "Say thy prayers, dear Faith, and go to bed at dusk, and no harm will come to thee" (p. 102). Young Goodman Brown is hesitant about leaving his Faith behind to go on such an errand, to venture into the forest where "the devil himself could be at my very elbow!" (p. 103). Once in the forest, Young Goodman Brown is met with "the figure of a man, in grave and decent attire, seated at the foot of an old tree" (p. 103). When questioned as to why he has dallied in meeting this figure, Young Goodman Brown replies "Faith kept me back awhile" (p. 103). In the literal sense, Young Goodman Brown's pretty young wife delayed him from his meeting with the dark figure by begging him to "put off his journey until sunrise and sleep in his own bed to-night" (p. 103). In a symbolic sense, Young Goodman Brown's devotion to all that is just in the world has made him hesitant to enter the corrupt reality of the forest. ... ...ditate his sermon, and Goody Cloyse catechizing a little girl. He spies the head of Faith, with the pink ribbons, gazing anxiously forth, and bursting into such joy at the sight of him that she skipped along the street and almost kissed her husband before the whole village" (p. 111). Young Goodman Brown looks sternly and sadly into her face, and passes on without a greeting. "Had Young Goodman Brown fallen asleep in the forest and only dreamed a wild dream of a witch-meeting?" (p. 112). It does not matter, for Young Goodman Brown becomes "a stern, a sad, a darkly meditative, a distrustful, if not a desperate man" (p. 111). He shrinks from the bosom of Faith, and he dies a "hoary corpse" (p. 111). It does not matter that Young Goodman Brown rejected the Devil at his fiery altar that night in the forest. The Devil has claimed his Faith in humanity in another way.

Data Abstraction

According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, the word abstract is defined as â€Å"disassociated from any specific instance† or â€Å"expressing a quality apart from an object†, or â€Å"having only intrinsic form with little or no attempt at pictorial representation or narrative content†.From these definitions, it can be possible to get an idea that to abstract an object implies something ethereal and nebulous, completely disjoint from a concrete instance of that object. In an idea reminiscent of Plato, the world can be separated into two things – the abstract idea and the concrete instance.Understanding the concept of the abstract data type or ADT is easier knowing the definitions of abstraction. An ADT is a representation of a concrete instance. Computers can only process ones or zeros and can only store long ones and zeros.However, in building programs a programmer might want to develop code that interacts or models real world objects or process es. ADTs are â€Å"invented† data types – data types that are modeled after the abstract idea of the concrete instance. An example is the string data type found in some programming languages.A computer cannot store a string (only ones and zeros) yet programmers can do operations on a string like concatenation (using the + operator) effortlessly as if the computer or compiler understands that the user is working with sentences.This brings to light an important concept when dealing with ADTs – the concept of information hiding. A compiler designer might engineer a programming language to handle strings in many ways. He may choose to use ASCII or EBCDIC, use 8 bits per character or a full 32 bit word, use little endian or big endian storage.All these choices are invisible to the user. All the developer needs to understand is that to concatenate strings uses a â€Å"+† operator. Indeed, for an abstracted data type to be functional the functionality of that da ta type should reflect that what that ADT represents independent of the implementation.The nitty gritty of its workings is hidden behind a wall called the interface. The interface (associated operations, properties, etc) is all that the programmer needs and should need to   know. A good wall is a prerequisite of good ADT design.So far the paper has discussed about ADTs as data types that represent an idea (such as a string) that is not natively supported by the hardware. A developer might also make his or her own ADTs through the use of data structures.A data structure is basically just an ordered way of organizing data. An example of a data structure is the struct in C, linked lists, and trees. A developer may choose to create one of these data structures in order to represent an abstract idea. He may choose to use a tree in order to represent a family tree.In designing user created ADTs, the concept of information hiding should still be remembered. The ADT should provide a const ant standard interface for every method or subroutine that chooses to call it. Additionally, it goes without saying that the data structure of choice should efficiently model the abstract idea it represents. Using a tree to represent genealogy is easier and makes more sense compared to using linked lists.A soda vending machine, even though it is quite simple is a good illustration of the many aspects of ADT design. The developer might need to store the types of sodas the machine is selling. As there is no â€Å"soda† data type, the programmer might use strings. When the machine vends, the machine should also know that there is one less soda in its storage.A programmer might then choose to implement the sodas as a stuct composed of one string (for the soda name) and an integer representing the number of soda cans left. When the customer presses a button corresponding to a soda, the soda name is displayed on the screen and the machine checks if there are still soda cans left.If there are cans left, the vend process continues through with the customer getting his soda (after payment of course) and the integer counter for the soda is decremented by one. However if the counter is of value zero already, the machine halts the operation and tells the customer to pick another soda.BibliographyCarrano, Frank, and Janet Prichard. Data Abstraction and Problem Solving with C++ Walls and Mirrors. 3rd ed. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2001.Sedgewick, Robert. Algorithms in C. 3rd ed. Boston: Addison-Weslet, 1998.Sun Developer Network [Website], java.sun.com

The Minimum Legal Drinking Age Essay - 1599 Words

Appropriate Minimum Legal Drinking Age What is the right age to drink alcohol? Alcohol’s reputation varies from one culture to another. For some cultures, like the United States, they perceive it as a â€Å"forbidden fruit† while many European countries view it more leniently as another essential complement to their daily diet. In reality, alcohol is essentially a drug, that manipulates people’s minds to make them anxious, dizzy and aggravated. The law understands that drinking alcohol has some side effects and therefore trusts its citizens to be mature about it. According to some people the pros outweigh the cons of alcohol; this is precisely the reason why modern countries attempt to alleviate its circulation because of its effects or even setting restrictive laws upon it. However, with the creation of these laws also arose imminent opposition and doubt over the age of which the laws would restrict. While today’s minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) i n the United States is 21, some people argue that the ideal minimum drinking age is 18, because it is safer for the health and it demotes crime while those people face a large opposition stating that the drinking age shall not be 18. On the other hand there is the other side which states that alcohol should be restricted to the age of 25 or above. They claim that it should be 25 because the human body stops developing at that age so it will not get harmed. The compromise is right in the middle of the ages, so thatShow MoreRelatedThe Minimum Legal Drinking Age939 Words   |  4 PagesThere has been ongoing public concern for adolescents and early adults’ drinking culture in worldwide. Australia has also great concerns about early initiating alcohol misuse and risky level of drinking pattern among young population. Consequently, the Minimum legal drinking age law is one of major alcohol control enforcement legislation to prevent alcohol related harms among adolescents ( Wec hsler and Nelson, 2010, p.985). Recently Western Australia which is the second heaviest alcohol consumptionRead MoreThe Minimum Legal Drinking Age1594 Words   |  7 PagesThe Drinking Age is Safer than You Thought As Americans, we are always wondering what we can do to save lives. We suspect cancer, disease, suicide, violence, and distracted driving as taking the lives of our fellow Americans. What you may not know, is that we are already saving lives, and we have been since 1984 because of one simple law. The Uniform Drinking Age Act of 1984 moved the minimum legal drinking age from 18 to 21. Lowering the drinking age is a step backward for our safety and ourRead MoreThe Minimum Legal Drinking Age1227 Words   |  5 Pagesopposition and doubt over their effectiveness. While today’s minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) is 21, it has been proven that the ideal minimum drinking age is 18, because it is safer for the health and it demotes crime. The healthiest drinking age is 18 because that is the age one turns into an adult, and according to the Free Dictionary’s West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, an adult is â€Å"a person who by virtue of attaining a certain age, generally eighteen, is regarded in the eyes of the law as beingRead MoreThe Minimum Legal Drinking Age1800 Words   |  8 PagesIn the 1980s, the United States raised the Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) to 21, from 18, in an attempt to protect the nation s youth. This placed the USA among the few countries whose drinking age is above 18. These countries include most of Canada, the Republic of Korea, Nicaragua, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Egypt, Indonesia, Micronesia, and Palau (Jernigan). Around the world, drinking ages vary; for example, in Slovenia, Italy, Portugal, Malta and Greece, you can drink before you turnRead MoreBinge Drinking And The Minimum Legal Drinking Age3264 Words   |  14 PagesKarzhova Marina Erin Beaver English Composition II 5 November 2014 Binge Drinking and the Minimum Legal Drinking Age In the year 1984, President Ronald Reagan enacted a law that increased the minimum drinking Age all U.S states to 21 years. As a result, it is believed that the mortality rates due to road accidents reduced from 5,000 in the 80’s to 2, 000 in 2005 (Dean-Mooney). However, the issue of binge drinking remains unsolved with learning institutions having to deal with it every semester. InRead MoreMinimum Legal Drinking Age ( Tietjen )1700 Words   |  7 PagesMinimum Legal Drinking Age On July 17 of 1984 President Ronald Reagan signed to make the National Minimum Drinking Age Act a law. This law required all states to have a minimum drinking age of 21, if a state did not comply with this law they could face up to a 10% cut in funding for their federal highways (Tietjen). Since this act became a law there has been two distinct sides arguing whether they agree with the minimum drinking age, or whether they disagree. One side believes having a minimum drinkingRead MoreLowering The Minimum Legal Drinking Age Essay1521 Words   |  7 PagesBeer For Everyone! The debate of lowering the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) has been going on for decades in the United States. Those opposed, argue that the current MLDA is not efficient and counterproductive (Engs 1). One study indicated that thousands of lives under the age of twenty-one are lost each year to alcohol (McCardell 1). Underage drinking is an issue that persists, despite evidence suggesting that the minimum legal drinking age of twenty-one has lowered alcohol usage among individualRead MoreKeeping the Minimum Legal Drinking Age1283 Words   |  6 Pagesthe minimum legal drinking age in the United States or not. Many Americans forbid the idea of legalizing the drinking age so that it would be profitable to the businesses. Likewise, there have been many advantages and disadvantages of why should the government allow young adults drink under the age of 21. To prevent this issue, many Americans have provided reasoning that will support the idea of keeping the minimum legal drinking age where it is now. The government should maintain the minimum legalRead MoreMinimum Legal Drinking Age Essay Essay1938 Words   |  8 Pages22 December 2016 Minimum legal drinking age 21 Is it worth it to let teens to ruin their whole future by allowing them to start drinking at a younger age? Annually about 5,000 youth under age 21 die from motor vehicle, other unintentional injuries, and homicides and suicides that involve underage drinking.(â€Å"Underage Drinking†) It is a current debate on whether or not the minimum drinking age should be lowered to the age of 18 from 21. Though, the reasons why the drinking age should be 21, clearlyRead MoreKeeping The Minimum Legal Drinking Age2656 Words   |  11 Pagesstarting to drink at a younger age, and their drinking patterns are becoming more extreme.† Keeping the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) at twenty-one or lowering it to the age of eighteen has been a continuous issue in the United States. People, mostly adolescent teenagers, say it should be lowered because if one is able to vote at the age of eighteen, they should also be allowed to drink. Sure, when a seventeen-year-old turns eighteen they ar e considered an adult, but age does not define maturity;

Water Essay Example For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3325 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Geography Essay Type Report Did you like this example? Introduction / Background Can we imagine life without water? Water is a very precious and limited vital natural resource. The demand of water for development of agricultural, industrial, urban use and power generation is increasing at very fast rate. Wise use of these resources should really be the concern of all people, whether they are involved in agricultural production activities or not. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Water Essay Example For Free" essay for you Create order By accepting it, we can manage to conserve soil and water effectively, then there will be measurable effect on the development of country. Watershed resources play a significant role in the development of a country depending on the location of a watershed; we can get water for domestic, agriculture and industrial uses. It is for this purpose, proper evolution and management of water resources acquires significant importance. Detailed survey work is carried out to find points of equal elevation, ridges and valleys. The reduced levels obtained from this survey were plotted to obtain contour plan. Three main valleys, which yield the water, were obtained from contour map. The water from these valleys in rainy season is not conserved and gets wasted, and adverse effects are seen such as soil erosion and gully formation. Conversely, if we save and utilize this water there will be proper soil conservation and recharging ground water table will be possible. According to the slope s found on contour plan, various soil and water are constructed in our watershed area. Due to several conservations schemes the water, which have been wanted will get conserved and will give benefit to residents of the area. Water is a limited natural vital resource, which is indispensable for the existence of all-living matter, plant, animal and man. Potable water, which was once thought to be an infinite natural resource, it would not last longer and become as dearer as are fossil fuels today. Today water covers 7/10th part of the globe surface, fills its atmosphere and lies unfathomed, beneath the crust of the world. Only less than 1% of it is fit and available for use and consumption by mankind. There are serious apprehensions that greater part of earth may go without water in the coming decades. Water tables in several Asian countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have already gone significantly low. The further projections are that by 2025 grater part of India may go without water unless suitable new resources are tapped and available water is conserved. Total water in the world estimated to be 1.5 billion cu.Km. about 95% of this is in the salty seas, of the remaining 5% fresh water, 60M.cu.Km are immobilized as continuously frozen polar ice and snow, leaving only 1.5M.cu.Km. As fresh liquid water for plants, animals and man. of the 15 M.cu.Km.of fresh water, of which about 1% is surface water and 99% is stored at varying depths. About half of the ground water is stored at depths greater than 1000m. Therefore for all practical purposes 7M.cu.Km.of fresh water is at reasonable depths plus the 150000cu.Km.of surfaces water is the worlds, usable water where, at any, only 15000 cu.Km.of fresh liquid water exists in lakes and streams of the world. Each year 380000 cu.Km. Of fresh water falls on land oceans, and the same amount is evaporated from the oceans and lands. On an average country like India receives about 120cm of precipi tation per year, mostly as rainfall. On the volume basis is 400 M.Ha.m. The fate of precipitation is estimated as, evaporation 18%; surface runoff 29% and soil infiltration 53%. Nothing can be done to reduce this 18% loss by evaporation. However, wise management can reduce 29% of surface runoff. This can be various water conservation techniques. The wisest management of water is to encourage every drop of rainfall to move into the soil at the point where it strikes the earth. When this happens, evaporation will be at a minimum, there will no erosion and crop production will be at a maximum. Watershed management or protection implies the proper use of all land water resources of a watershed for optimum production with minimum hazard to natural resources. Proper planning is therefore absolutely so as to obtain as many benefits as possible with minimum expenditure. Planning for water resources development in its wider sense may broadly be defined as through study of pros and c ons of various possible ways of harnessing this wonderful natural resource and finally bring down the means and ways of achieving the best and optimum benefits. The concept of watershed is basic to all hydrologic designs. Since big watersheds are made of many smaller watersheds, it is necessary to define the watershed in terms of a point. This point is usually the location at which the design is being made and is referred to as the watershed outlet. With respect to the outlet, the watershed consists of all land area that sheds water to the outlet during a rainfall. Using the concept that water runs downhill watershed is defined by all points enclosed within an area from which rain falling at these points will contribute water to the outlet. Watershed development has been proved as an attractive approach to rural development over recent decades. All the Projects and programmes have been put into practice across America, Africa and South Asia, but it is perhaps in India whe re the approach has been most popular and permanent. Here, central government investment has been running at over US$ 500 million a year. This paper considers watershed development in rural areas where water supplies for domestic use. Several new studies and papers have mentioned the current use of watershed development efforts. When we see some country like India, which are implemented by government, have been widely criticised for a lack of impact. (Rhoades, 1998; Malla Reddy, 2000). Weaknesses in participation, and inflexibility in choice of technology have been blamed in many cases and guidelines for watershed development have been improved. Where watershed development projects have achieved significant impacts, it is often the landed (and not the poor) who have benefited. Positive impacts of projects in dry land India include improved agricultural production, and development of local-level institutions (Batchelor et al. 2000). In India large irrigation canals are we re built in the nineteenth as well as twentieth centuries and large number of multipurpose water resources projects were built in the last century. These projects were either entirely funded or heavily subsidized by national government in recognition of the crucial role of that water plays in national development. Approximately 170 million hectares in India are classified as degraded land, the majority falling in undulating semiarid Areas where rain fed framings is practised (Farrington and Lobo, 1997). These areas are characterised by deforestation, loss of biomass, high rates of erosion and lack of fertile soils which results in low productivity of land and poverty. Seasonal or permanent migration tends to be high in these areas. Migration increases the seriousness of problems related to urbanisation, such as unemployment, poor health and housing problems. Therefore, arresting environmental degradation and increases in land productivity are both necessary aims of rural development programmes in south Asia. The Government of India is giving particular attention to environmental regeneration of catchment areas. Approximately US$ 300 million per year are disbursed by the Government of India on interventions that are aimed at improving all categories of land in watersheds (Farrington and Lobo, 1997). Apart from the Government of India, various state governments, national and international organisations are funding watershed development projects. World population has increased nearly threefold in the last 50 years. The standard of living has gone up. In India nearly 70% of the population still depends up on the agriculture which is the biggest user of water. There is considerable uncertainty as to the climate change and its manifestation. In developing countries both non-government organisations and government development agencies have implemented watershed management projects for last 25 years with the aim of increasing agricultural product ivity and reducing poverty on hillsides in rural areas. Many of the watershed management projects throughout the world have not taken into account land use capacity and its restoration and prevention potential. They have centred on activities that although important at the plot level do not add up to transformations at the landscape level. A major question is, therefore, how to select watershed management sites and activities in such a way that organisations can simultaneously address the social and economic goals for local inhabitants as well as the aims of watershed conservation and restoration. This paper summarises observations derived from earlier assessments of watershed management projects, including short-term reviews of watershed management projects in Bangladesh, Bolivia, Thailand and Uganda carried out by Perez between 1989 and 1999. In all these case, they visited field sites, interviewed project personnel and participant farmers and reviewed project documents a nd other technical literature. They have also taken into account evidence from the international literature on watershed management. Aim The main aim of this research study is: To investigate the demand of water for development of domestic use and agriculture use and To examine how to manage existing water resources. Objectives The objectives of this study are: To control damaging excess. To manage and utilize excess for useful purposes. To control erosion and effect reduction in the sediment production. To have moderate floods in the downstream areas. To enhance ground water storage. Appropriate use of the land resources on the watershed and thus developing Forest and Food Resources The research will look at the current development of various natural resources, particularly land and water, the watersheds or hydraulics units are considered more efficient for carrying out necessary surveys and investigations for assessment of these resources as well as for subsequent planning and implementation of development programs. The watershed approach is more rational because the inherent potential of soil and water resources in a particular area is governed by various factors, most important of which are physiographic, geological base, soil characteristics, climate, present land use, socio economical and legal aspects and other relevant factors. It has been observed that there is optimum interaction between the natural factors of physiographic, soil and climate on watershed bases for their optimum utilization and output. The watershed approach is, therefore, increasingly being employed in various development programmes like soil conservation, command area develo pment, deficiency level area programmes, shifting cultivation, recovery or very hungry areas, erosion control in catchments of river valley projects etc. the watershed also important with respect to the development of water resources in the shape of major, medium and minor irrigation projects. The programmes for water harvesting on form level have been developed on watershed bases. After all the feasible sites for exploitation of the surface water are explored, the only alternative left to cope with the droughts is to make the use of ground water resources. As ground water also depends on the rainfall received, there is need to harvest and use this resources sufficiently with the help of watershed management. For planning a particular watershed, the planner must have a basic objective or multiple objectives and keeping this in mind should then proceed with the formulation and evolution of the various alternatives. The objectives of watershed management programme are to con trol damaging runoff, to manage and utilize runoff for useful purposes, to control erosion and effect reduction in the sediment production, to have moderate floods in the downstream areas, to enhance ground water storage. Appropriate use of the land resources on the watershed and thus developing forest and fodder resources. These objectives can be achieved by bringing about improvement in physical condition of soil through proper managing and cropping with a view to increase water infiltration and holding capacity. Ensuring good crop growth by adopting the recommended agronomic practices for each crop. Practicing other conservation measures like contour Bunding, terracing, contour trenching, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching, reclamation of gullies etc. adoption of conservation farming practices to improve agriculture, controlled grazing to keep the pastures productive , water management for irrigation and drainage and all other types of erosion control meas ures could be considered as the parts of watershed management. Methodology A wide variety of methods were used for data collection. These include Best Interviews, Participant observation, Semi-structured focus group interviews, Questionnaire and Case study method. A flexible approach was used for deciding methodologies. In the initial stages of data collection best interviews and group interviews were conducted with experienced watershed committee members, farmers, government officers and non-government organisation representatives. It takes considerable courage to openly accept and discuss the argument one is facing. Therefore in focus groups and best interviews importance was given to active listening, creating a comfortable and friendly atmosphere, building trust and acknowledging the experiences of the narrator without criticism or judgement. To make it easier for participants to discuss their argument and to build relationship, previous argument and their management were discussed to help feel safe through the distance that time gives. Aft er understanding was built people felt more comfortable discussing their present arguments. The other technique of creating distance was through asking similar questions in the context of other watersheds. For this reason, the author of this report explains what a research study is and how it is carried out in this chapter. Definition of research The word research has been defined and explained in so many different ways, but more importantly; all the various definitions seek to point out in one particular direction. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines Research as A search or investigation undertaken to discover facts and reach new conclusions by the critical study of a subject or by a course of scientific enquiry. Research was defined by Hitchock and Hughes (1993), as the systematic enquiry that is characterized by a certain amount of rigor and governed by set principles and guidelines for procedures. For instance, social research, therefore, refers to bo th the collection and analysis of information on the social world in order thereby to understand and explain it better. According to Naoum (1998), there are two types of research strategies, namely Quantitative research and Qualitative research. The choice of the type to use depends on the purpose of the study and the type and availability of the information which is required. Qualitative Research This type of research emphasizes meanings, experiences, description and so on. The information obtained after carrying out a qualitative research can be categorized into two classes of research. These classes are exploratory and attitudinal. Quantitative Research It is defined as an enquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a hypothesis or a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the hypothesis or the theory hold true. Quantitative data is, therefore, not abstract, they are hard and reliable; they are measured of tangible, countable sensate features of the world. Quantitative research, therefore, is said to be objective in nature. Exploratory research This type of research is used when there is limited amount of knowledge about the topic under consideration. The purpose of exploratory research is intertwined with the need for a clear and precise statement of the recognised problem. The raw data provided in exploratory research will be exactly what people have said (in interview or recorded conversation) or a description of what has been observed. Attitudinal research This type of Qualitative research is used to subjectively evaluate the opinion, view or perception of a person, towards a particular object. Qualitative research, therefore, is said to be subjective in nature. Postal Questionnaire This technique of data collection is maybe the most commonly used. It is very suitable for surveys with clearly defined objectives and normally asks questions that need specific response, like write or wrong. The main advantages of postal questionnaires are Economy, Speed and Consultation. Personal interview This is yet another technique of collecting data or information from respondents by a face-to-face interactions. With this technique, answers to questions are received instantly. For the purpose of this work, the author in a bid to collect data for the research analyses, the personal interview technique will be adopted. Personal interviews will be conducted and with a number of selected watershed companies. The feedback received from respondents of the companies selected will then be analysed and conclusions drawn from them. From the conclusion drawn, suitable recommendations will then be made. This research method will be used due to the fact that unlike the research questionnaire, the respondent is known and there is a close interaction between interviewer and respondent. Even though it takes a longer time to go through the interview and the cost is high, the sample size is smaller and the quality of information received is deep and detailed. This is because the int erviewer has the chance to probe and the flexibility to reword question and clarify terms that are not clear. Moreover, with this technique, answers to questions are received instantly, they are more accurate, the rate of response is relatively high and it is easy to analyse why the particular answers are given to the questions. The data received from the interview will be represented and analysed by using graphs and charts. For the purpose of this research, both published and unpublished literature available in the subject area as well as similar areas will be reviewed critically and in details in order to establish facts about the topic and draw conclusions. Also journals, such as magazines and watershed journals will be reviewed since they tend to discuss very current issues in the industry. Other literature to be reviewed will include other research reports as well as reports from seminars. Watershed management websites will be reviewed and information will be gathere d from them. Due to the method selected to be used to collect data, which is the personal interview technique, equipment such as voice recorders and hand held PDAs will be used in order to enhance the data collection process and facilitate easy analysis afterwards. During the data collection process, the writer imagine a lot of travelling hence various transportation means available, such as trains, public buses, taxis and private means, will be used. After the collection of data, computer software such as SPSS will be used to present and analyse the data. Other computer programmes, like Microsoft Office Project and Microsoft Office Excel among other software will be used in order to enhance the final presentation, analysis and conclusion of all the data collected. This proposed research program, even though will yield very physical and useful results, will involve a lot of financial investment due to the resources needed to carry it out successfully. Hence it will cost the researcher a lot of money to be able to achieve good and useful results. Another major control picture will be the willingness and availability of respondents to the survey. It will be very difficult to get respondents who are willing to spare some time to give an interview and even if they do, they might not be sincere in giving accurate responses especially if the questions are a bit searching into their companys activities or personal opinions. Research Beneficiaries / Dissemination This proposed research, when completed successfully, will be a useful report which will go a long way to blow on the watershed industry because it will bring out and highlight some, of the points, of the existing water management in the country and continue to improve the general performance of the watershed industry in the world. Even though quite a lot of research has been carried out in this area and a lot of reports written, most of them are focused on Watershed management and more especially relating it mainly to water resources issues, which is what makes this research a bit different and unique for that matter. This report will be forwarded for publication in different print magazines in the industry and also posted on the internet so that anybody can have access to it. It will not only benefit the watershed industry but other industries can also access it and apply the theories propounded as well.

Essay about Using Reflection to Identify Teacher...

Within this assignment I will start with a brief outline of what reflection is and propose a rationale for engaging in reflection. I will then identify three key themes that featured in my reflective journal and explore these using theoretical models and critical analysis in relation to the development of my professional practice throughout the course and as a trainee teacher. I will then conclude with a summary of my development and identify future professional development needs. â€Å"Reflective practice is understood as the process of learning through and from experience towards gaining new insights of self and/or practice† (Boud et al 1985; Boyd and Fales, 1983; Mezirow, 1981, Jarvis, 1992). Reflection has been an important feature of†¦show more content†¦Moon (1999) regards Shà ¶ns groundbreaking theory of reflection in action is un-achievable. Furthermore Shà ¶n recognised a distinction between technical rationality and tacit knowledge described simply as the theory practice gap. He theorised that although teachers may have acquired ‘technical rationality’ described as a theoretical knowledge of their subject, how to teach it, and what should happen in practice. This concept rarely happened in the reality of the classroom. Moreover, he felt that teachers developed their ‘tacit knowledge’ a synthesis of theory and practice built from real life experiences. Copping, 2014 disputes this in the belief that theory practice gap does not exist. Eurat (2005) faults the work of Shà ¶n for its lack of clarity and direction whilst Boud and Walker (1998) argue that he ignores the context of reflection. Although I am not convinced the theory practice gap exists, I am in agreement with Boud and walker and find that theories and practice have to be adapted contextually with regard to a variety of aspects such as the setting, circumstances, individual children, personal beliefs to name a few, recognising that one method or approach does not suit all. 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Defintion of integrity Essay Example For Students

Defintion of integrity Essay English 4Kim Nash Definition EssayJanuary 5, 1997 The definition of integrity according to Websters Dictionary is, a rigid adherence to a code of behavior. There are though many ways to look at a persons integrity. A person with integrity possesses many qualities. Three of these qualities are honesty, the ability to follow a moral code, and loyalty to yourself and your beliefs. In The Crucible, a prime example of a person with integrity is Elizabeth Proctor. Elizabeth shows her personal purity when she refuses to persuade her husband to confess to crimes of witchcraft. She refuses because she believes that he is good now in Gods light. God, to her, will show her the right way, and she believes that by following Gods moral code she will be right and just. John Proctor, Elizabeths husband, also shows his integrity when he refuses to confess to crimes of witchcraft. Even though confessing would save his life, he wont confess to a crime he didnt commit. He knows that being dishonest isnt being loyal to his beliefs. In The Crucible, an example of not possessing integrity is also shown. Danforth, is the prime example of having no loyalty towards himselfor his beliefs. Danforth, is the Deputy Governor who convicts the citizens of being witches. When Danforth is asked to pardon the accused, he refuses saying that he cant because twelve have already hung for the same crime, and he refuses to let asnyone off. Even though he knows what is right and that they are innocent he wont because it would ruin the integrity of the court, and his own recitude. Indictment: The McMartin Trial, also has many characters who posses a great sense of integrity. For instance the McMartin family sticks together even when they are being accused of the horrible crime of child molestation. They also will not confess to the crime because they know they are innocent and that it wouldnt be right to say that they were guilty. The McMartins also never give up hope in the rest of the world. They never lose faith in their belief in that truth will always prevail. They keep their uprightness, through everything never giving up and always keeping the faith that if they are loyal to their beliefs in God everything will work out in the end. Fox Moulder, the main character from the TV show the X-Files has a sense of integrity, in that he always does what he believes is right, and what he feels is the truth. No matter what happens in his life he always believes that his sister was abducted by aliens, even though the popular belief is that aliens dont exist. He also doesnt follow the norm in his thinking, he follows the path that he thinks is right. He also never conforms to the popular opinion, he always look for the truth. Integrity shows up in many places and has many faces. The faces of truth, moral code, and loyalty are all parts of integrity and show up everyday in many ways. To have a true sense of integrity one must posses all three. You have to be honest to yourself and to others, follow your personal beliefs and stick to what you think is right, and you have to be loyal to yourself. Integrity is to be truly honest, and fair, and to uphold the beliefs important to you. Category: English .